LITERARY ESSAY Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Scholarly - Essay Example Through the most exceedingly terrible characteristic situation around her, the storyteller verifiably conveys her own condition of apparently excruciating feelings which have kept her fixed. No specific reference to determinate inclination is fused, maybe to imply that the lady who ends up under conditions of profound idea and heaviest of feelings would most presumably stop proceeding onward as she sees that nothing can cure her sad case. Without expressing solid data of her experience, the speaker is made to use the symbolism in her condition for perusers to comprehend that every single inward undertaking whether of the brain or of the heart are route past the repulsive facades. Such is striking with every verse that contains sharp pictures of startling wild or lamentably climatic scene. Bronte in the long run conveys this effect by assigning similar sounding word usage to significant expressions in â€Å"wild winds† and â€Å"bare boughs†. She even renders representation in portraying the ‘spell’ the lady is bound with by means of the third line expressing â€Å"But a dictator spell has bound me.† This at that point legitimizes the end of the main verse where the speaker presumes that she ‘cannot go’, inferring how extreme the coupling spell is that there is evidently nothing about the ‘darkening night’ or the ‘cold wild winds’ that would cause her to redirect to nullifying the spell from inside or step out of it. With ABAB CBCB ABAB rhyme plot, â€Å"Spellbound† is organized in a scholarly style that has an example of evenness. As such, the crowd can smoothly take part in the principle topic getting persuaded to settle at the purpose of determining the person’s shortcoming to split away from an undetectable control of destiny. To show up at the most clear less frightening choice which goes â€Å"I won't, can't go† for the finale, Bronte debilitates to the imagination’s advantage a great part of the substantial

Property Asset Management ( A professional Report) Essay

Property Asset Management ( An expert Report) - Essay Example The group must have at any rate three (3) additional individuals who reasonably qualified and experienced beside the Property Assessment Manager to empower the smooth and expert execution of the undertaking's chief errand of finding a suitable central station for the firm. One is the Senior Property Appraiser who will be entrusted to perform troublesome specialized valuation work in the order and examination of genuine property for esteem evaluation purposes and to aid the preparation of subordinate appraisers in the hypothesis and strategies of genuine property evaluations. The SPA's obligations may incorporate however are not constrained to: drives evaluation ventures, incorporating helping with arranging and coordination of undertakings; yearly performs starter and last audit on a huge volume of complex valuation changes, for example, homestead and backwoods property isolations and mergers; This individual must have a working information on - Property charge framework and changes important to figure surveyed values coming about because of rectifications or acclimations to genuine market esteem; standards, practices and strategies for genuine property evaluation; specialized examination practices and systems utilized in private, business, ranch, woods, fabricated lodging and land evaluation, relevant basic, financial, and natural variables influencing property estimation; exceptional appraisal programs including ranch, woodland, untamed life environment, recorded, business offices under development, riparian and open space; development methods, outlines, maps, property depictions, nature of building materials, hardware, workmanship, and general development quality and amount as applied to

How to tackle The DBMS Assignment Top 5 DBMS assignment ideas.?

How to tackle The DBMS Assignment Top 5 DBMS assignment ideas.? Today, we are going to share the proven tips on how to tackle the DBMS assignment with ease. Here we go:- DBMS is one of an essential part of every computer software. Which is used to manage, or delete data for any particular Software? So, it is necessary for every computer science student to learn DBMS. Meanwhile, you can take the best DBMS assignment help from our experts. DBMS systematically provides programmers to create, update, and manage data. Besides, the DBMS software system that facilitates the creation of the construction process. In contrast, It manipulates and shares the database between different users and applications. What is Database Management System? Summary What is Database Management System?Some DBMS examples are:How to make DBMS Assignment Effective or Attractive:Tips on How to Tackle The DBMS assignment:How to Make a database system fast?Database Management Languages:Uses Of Database:WHAT DO WE PROVIDE?Your databases homework/ Assignments students encountered and how we can help- The database is a structured, organized set of data. The database specifies the software used to store and organize the data. Firstly, Think of it as a file cabinet, where you are store data in different classes. When you need a specific file, you see that particular volume (table). And you get the file (data) you need. Some DBMS examples are: MySQLSQL ServerOracledBASEFoxPro How to make DBMS Assignment Effective or Attractive: Everyone put a lot of efforts to get good marks in their DBMS assignments. Hope you can follow the experts advice. Effective Database PlanningChoosing the best Database DesignChoose A Database TypeOptimize for SpeedKeep the Database on Its Own Server Tips on How to Tackle The DBMS assignment: Below are some topics which can help you to create an attractive DBMS Assignment. If you have lack of time hire our database assignment help. DBMS assignment help Recognizing the purpose of setting up the databaseRecognizing all the info that needs to be stored as per the definitions/ requirementsThe format (i.e. tabular, object-oriented) and primary key recognition for database structuringDesigning the relationship between the various data structures/ tables/ format or cells How to Make a database system fast? Whenever the engineers make changes or increase the database for any system software. The most challenging part for them is to speed improvement. If we create a unique database system for software. But the speed is slower. Then there is no benefit of performing that database. Because, in the computing world, speed values the most. There are some topics below those can help you to increase the speed of your database system. Make sure all of your tables have primary keys. Optimize by adding secondary indexes.Be like an atom and split.Use Compact and Repair.Load only what you need. Database Management Languages: There are various types of languages for data manipulation. If you are facing trouble in Database. Then avail the best database assignment help. DDL stands for Data Definition Language. DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. DCL stands for Data Control Language. TCL stands for Transaction Control Language. Uses Of Database: Database management systems are using for many purposes: Database DevelopmentInterrogationDatabase MaintenanceApplication Development WHAT DO WE PROVIDE? We are providing complete support in database understanding, database assignment help, and homework help. Finishing your database Homework.Completing your Database Assignments.Developing your Database Projects, term-paper, major minor projects.Clearing suspicion related to DBMS conceptsMake all the concepts of a database We guarantee our database assignment help give you high-quality database homework help. And deliver perfect plagiarism free work. We also provide the work within the allotted time frame. Get your database homework done right on time. The work will be done without any unexpected delays or latency. Our database assignment help specialists are available round the clock. So you are assured that you will get live chat and 24×7 live feature. Your databases homework/ Assignments students encountered and how we can help- When students try to do their database assignments or database homework. One of the many major shortcomings is that they are not experienced enough to eliminate it altogether. That is why they are unable to do so before the deadline. 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Ways to De-Stress in College

Knowing how to destress can make all the difference between a crazed college experience and one you feel you have control over. Sometimes, however, knowing that you need to destress can be different than actually knowing how to destress. Check out this list of tips—theres sure to be one (or more) for nearly everyone! Relaxing Ways to Destress Breathe deeply.  It only takes a few minutes, but it can really help you achieve more positive mental health. Focus on inhaling and exhaling while trying to let all the stress in your brain slowly melt away.Put your headphones in and listen to some music.  Closing your eyes and relaxing while listening to some music can do wonders for your brain. Tuning out the world for even just five minutes can be a great way to lower your stress and increase your mental clarity.Daydream about your life after  graduation.  College can be overwhelming because there is so much to do all of the time. Let yourself daydream for a few minutes about what your dream life will be like after graduation. Dont worry about how youll make everything happen; just imagine the best possible scenario and the goals youre working so hard to achieve.Look through your personal pics online.  You can check out things youve posted on Facebook or elsewhere. Looking through your personal pics can warm your heart a nd cool your stress.Look through the pics you have on your phone.  Most people take a ton of pictures with their cell phone—and then forget all thats on there. Take a quick trip down memory lane while also giving yourself a break and a few minutes to relax.Read motivational quotations about college and education.  Sometimes, college life can simply seem—if not be—overwhelming. Give yourself some perspective by reading over some  motivational quotations about college  that can help remind you why you work so hard in the first place.Come up with a list of 10 things youve accomplished today/this week.  Sometimes people can get so focused on what they have left to do that theyve forgotten all the things theyve already done. Lower your stress by writing down at least 10 things youve accomplished today or this week. You just might surprise yourself!Take a quick shower.  Most of the time you shower to get clean. Today, however, take a shower to just relax y ourself. Let the hot water massage your shoulders and try to imagine your stress being rinsed off and going down the drain, too.Take a quick bath.  If youre lucky enough to live in a place that has bathtubs, a quick bath can be a magical escape. Squirt some soap (or even shampoo) in for some bubbles and pretend youre somewhere far, far away.Wash your face.  If you dont have time for a bath or a shower, a quick face-wash can help wake you up, making you feel refreshed, and relax you—even if its just for a minute or two. If you dont have your soap handy, a quick splash of water will do.Give yourself a mani/pedi.  You dont have to escape to a nail salon to feel fancy. Grab some polish and give yourself a visual pick-me-up as a way to destress and focus on something fun and funky for a few minutes.Address the thing that is stressing you out the most.  Chances are, amidst all your stressors, theres at least one or two things that really stand out. Do at least one thing to address the biggest stress factor(s) in your life—even if its deciding not to worry about it until tomorrow. Active Ways to Destress Do some stretching.  You dont have to be a yoga teacher to know how to stretch. Whether youre in the library, the quad, or your room, a few minutes of slow, deep stretching can improve your mood immensely.Do some  yoga specifically catered to stress reduction.  Of course, if you do love yoga, you know how helpful some good stretching and breathing can be for your health. Take what youve learned in a yoga class and apply it at a time you need it most.Go for a walk.  It doesnt matter where you go—in fact, an aimless walk might be better than one with tasks assigned to it. Remove yourself from a stressful situation and enjoy a few minutes out and about.Go for a quick run.  Grab your shoes, throw on some running clothes, and get your stress out while hitting the pavement (or track or treadmill). A quick, high-intensity run can lower your stress and increase your energy for hours afterward.Go for a bike ride.  Who says you can only use your bike to get to and from class ? Go for a quick ride thats more fun than functional.Ride a skateboard.  If youre able to ride a skateboard on (or near) campus, this pastime can be a great break from your regular, stressful college routine.Clean up your desk.  Alright, it sounds lame, but wouldnt it be nice to start your homework with a nice, clean, organized desk? A clear space leads to a clear mind and cleaning up your desk can do wonders for your productivity.Clean up your room.  Even people who like clean rooms often dont like actually cleaning them. Set a timer for five minutes and see how much you can get done in that time. Youll get yourself moving, get your things organized, and get your head away from the source of your stress for at least a few minutes.Clean out your backpack.  Boring? Maybe. Well, actually ... totally boring. But doing something completely mindless that will result in feeling productive can be a great way to focus on something other than your stress.Do  some laundry.  You ma y not want to do it, but think of the benefits: Youll get yourself out of your current, stress-inducing project, youll get yourself moving, youll get a mental break from your more stressful tasks, and youll finally get some clean clothes.Dance.  For some, dancing can be a great escape from the stressors of everyday life. Dance to your hearts content for a few minutes before returning to your regularly scheduled tasks.Go for a walk and buy a cup of tea.  Sure, you may have some tea in your room, but sometimes the extra little splurge can be worth it. Youll get moving while also getting a break.Go for a walk and buy a cup of coffee.  If its looking like itll be a long night, go walk to the campus coffee shop and splurge on a cup o joe. Youll get your blood pumping while also getting a little caffeine in your system.Go for a walk and buy a healthy snack.  Sure, those french fries look delicious, but opting for a piece of fruit and some whole wheat toast from the dining hall wil l make you feel better, both physically and mentally.Go for a walk and treat yourself to, well, a treat.  Alright, lets be honest here: Sometimes you just need a candy bar. Take the long way to the vending machines before selecting a special treat to pick you up and lower your stress, even if its just for a little while. Social Ways to Destress Call a friend and catch up for a few minutes.  Checking in with someone you hold near and dear can be great for your heart. Get the latest from your friend while also sneaking in a nice mental break, too.Send a friend an email.  Chances are that theres at least one friend you need to catch up with, but you may not have time right now for a phone call. Send a quick email letting them know the latest and greatest in your life. And if youre lucky, the next time you need a break, there will be an email from them, too!Send your parents an email.  Face it—you dont talk to your parents enough while youre away at school and theyd like you to  keep in touch more. If a phone call isnt going to work for you right now, zip them a quick email about whats going on with you.Send your sibling(s) an email.  Many students get so caught up in their lives in college that they forget to check in with their siblings. Take a moment or two to send along an update to your brother(s) and/or s ister(s)—you might be surprised at how much better doing so makes you feel.Go hang out with other folks for a few minutes.  Even if youre on a tight deadline and feel like you cant spare a few minutes, guess what? You can. Spending a few minutes de-stressing with friends can help your productivity during the rest of the night.Find some friends and have everyone give everyone else a quick massage.  The power of a 3-minute neck and shoulder rub should never, ever be underestimated. Grab several folks, line up, and have everyone rub each others shoulders for a few minutes.Kiss your significant other.  The power of human touch can always help you destress. Grab your honey and enjoy a few minutes of lip-locking before getting back to what you have to do.Look at the events happening on campus this weekend.  If youre feeling overwhelmed with what you have to do between now and the weekend, looking at what options await you at the end of the tunnel can be a great way to destr ess. Check out an events calendar online or go for a quick walk and actually take the time to read the posters and flyers everyone puts up all over the place.Make fun plans for the weekend.  If taking a break from campus is what your brain needs, make some fun plans for the weekend. Check out a local city guide or call a friend to see what the scoop is. Fun Ways to Destress Watch your favorite scene from your favorite movie on  YouTube,  Hulu, etc.  Even if you dont own your favorite movie, chances are you can find it online somewhere. Treat yourself to some old-fashioned escapism and tune out for a few minutes.Search for funny clips on YouTube.  Things go viral so quickly that theres always new stuff to watch. Put yourself on a time limit and watch ridiculous things to your hearts content.Create a new  Pandora  channel.  If you really need to work, incorporate ways to destress into your process. Create a new Pandora channel that will energize and refocus you as you work.Treat yourself to some new songs on iTunes.  Buying a few songs for a few bucks can perk you up, give you something fun to look forward to, and let you feel happy instead of stressed—both during and after your purchase.Play around on  Facebook.  Of course, the key here is only to do so for a few minutes. Losing 30 minutes when youre stressed can sometimes add more fuel to the fire. But spending a few minutes poking around can be a great break for your brain.Play around on  Twitter.  Even if youre new to Twitter, seeing what the buzz is at any point in time can be a fun diversion.Play around on  Flickr.  If youre a visual person, looking at cool pictures of things that make you happy can be a nice uplift for your heart—and a nice decrease for your blood pressure.Play around on  StumbleUpon.  StumbleUpon can be enjoyable because it takes you to new sites you may never have heard of but that other users, with interests similar to yours, have recommended. Its a great way to surf the web and find new sites without getting lost in a ton of junk.Read the national news headlines.  Reading the national news can be a great break for your mind while also helping to keep you informed of current events. If youre really lucky, the headlines you read today can be used during a class conversation tomorrow.Read the news headlines in your local town.  You may be so busy living your college life that you dont know what current events are in your new local town. Find out a little more about your home-away-from-home by checking out the local paper online.Read news headlines from your hometown.  What better way to get out of your little stress bubble at school than to learn about the happenings back in your hometown? Even the ads for local restaurants you havent thought about for months might cheer you up a bit.Play around on a gossip website for a few minutes (like  People).  Catching up on the latest celebrity news can be entertaining and provide a fun few minutes of escape.Catch up on the latest sports news.  Most students spend so much time reading homework in college that skimming the latest from the sports world isnt really an option. Check out whats happening with your favorite team, favorite sport, or favorite athlete for a few minutes.

Social Inclusion And Exclusion From The Australian...

INTRODUCTION This essay will analyse the contested concepts of social inclusion and exclusion in education. While there are numerous social groups whom experience the impact of educational inclusion and exclusion the essay will particularly focus on what these concepts entail for indigenous students within the Australian schooling system. The essay will examine the multifaceted nature of social inclusion and exclusion in education by utilising the contested grounds, which substantiate debate surrounding these concepts. Relying on a number of academic literature and evidence to explore discourse surrounding how policy which governs institutions, pedagogy and curriculum, has constituted social inclusion and exclusion within Indigenous contexts. As well as how intergenerational experiences and issues have disadvantaged the outcomes of Indigenous students in engaging in a ‘Eurocentric’ education environment. Concluding the essay will discuss practical suggestions, which would in theory enhance the effectiveness of the current education policy and teacher practice towards including indigenous cultures and learners within the classroom. Considering mechanisms to increase the potential to include and engage a broader scope of indigenous learners across the board. PARAGRAPH ONE Over time various definitions of social exclusion and inclusion have arisen in the lenses of sociological and policy derived viewpoints. These definitions have been translated throughout time toShow MoreRelatedThe View Of Best Practice For Educating And Caring For People With Disability2561 Words   |  11 Pagespeople with disability has changed to one of inclusion in all aspects of life in society. In Australia, there was some resistance initially, fear and misunderstanding guided the decision making processes which meant those with disability were kept apart longer than in some other countries (Heward, 2009). Gradually, legislative changes, influenced by medical knowledge and researched based practice meant that people were no longer allowed to be separated by social barriers and were granted legal rightsRead MoreWhat Is Inclusive Education and How Will This Shape Your Teaching Practice?3559 Words   |  15 Pagesthere are deficit based and systemic approaches to exclusion and that rather than promote inclusiveness; these approaches place the blame upon either individuals or institutions for exclusive practices. It will further be shown that for some equity groups, participation and successful outcomes are limited due to the socio-cultural nature of exclusivity experienced by these groups. In particular, education equity issues for Indigenous Australians will be examined. The role of government legislationRead MoreThe Discourse Of Whiteness Has Impacted On The Educational Outcomes For Aboriginal And Torres Strait Islander Peoples1865 Words   |  8 Pageswhiteness has severely impacted on the educational outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples (herein referred to as Indigenous Peoples). The discourse is based on an ontology founded on overt racism, discrimination, prejudice, exclusion and dispossession and towards all Indigenous Peoples. Subsequently, the history of Indigenous Peoples experiences in relation to education is extremely negative. They have been denied the right to the same education as non-Indigenous students,Read More Inclusive Education Essay3477 Words   |  14 Pageschildren in society, regardless of their physical, intellectual, social, or linguistic deficits. Inclusion should also include children from disadvantaged groups, of all races and cultures as well as the gifted and the disabled (UNESCO, 2003). Inclusion tries to reduce exclusion within the education system by tackling, responding to and meeting the different needs of all learners (Booth, 1996). It involves changing the education system so that it can accommodate the unique styles and way of learningRead MoreSocial Class and Education Essay example2074 Words   |  9 Pages1. How may a students social class origin and related factors impact on her/his learning outcomes and how can teachers intervene to effectively address any resulting disadvantages and injustices for students? That a student’s social class origin impacts on their learning outcomes is self-evident across much of the developed world, with entrenched disparities in academic achievement that are inversely correlated with family income (Snook, 2009:3, Argy, 2007:para 3, Reay, 2006:289, Nash, 2003:179-180)Read Moreâ€Å"I Wanted to Go to School but My Parents Told Me, No Essays6683 Words   |  27 PagesAboriginal Australian history and it’s connections to official education policies both past and present. What is the connection between official education policies and key events in Aboriginal Australian history? How have Aboriginal people responded to these policies? Key events in Aboriginal Australian history stem from the time Australia was first discovered in 1788. For instance, when Federation came into existence in 1901, there was a prevailing belief held by non Aboriginal Australians thatRead MorePreparing Regular Education Teachers For Address The Diverse Needs Of Children With Special Needs2409 Words   |  10 Pagesneeds of all children has to be taken by regular education teachers. But the issues of addressing the diversity in the class room has not been addressed in teacher education programmes which develops a large number of teachers come into the education system. Spratt (2013) pointed out that teachers are not sufficiently prepared to address the student differences in school which is relevant to the Sri Lankan context. Alwis, (2000) and NEC (2003) highlight that there are no special strategies designed forRead MoreThe Equal Education System9443 Words   |  38 PagesIntroduction â€Å"Wealthy kids usually do better in school than poor kids† . Australians likes to think of themselves as an egalitarian society in which everyone has a ‘fair go’ . This idea has led to the creation of an equal education system but today, the reality is far from this egalitarian system. Only 17% of Australians from low-socioeconomic backgrounds are able to attend university , roughly half the likelihood of Australians from medium and high socioeconomic backgrounds. This degree of socio-academicRead MoreEssay special education11975 Words   |  48 Pagesparticipation restrictions. Disability is the interaction between individuals with a health condition (e.g. cerebral palsy, Down syndrome or depression) and personal and environmental factors (e.g. negative attitudes, inaccessible transportation, or limited social supports). Long ago there was great confusion over the meaning of terms such as impairment, handicap, or disability.   Then, in 1980, the WHO provided great service by offering a clear way of thinking about it all in a little book called InternationalRead MoreA Jerney in to the Deaf World15812 Words   |  64 PagesChapter notes: Chapter Notes from Journey Into Deaf-World Chapter 1 Chapter one is basically an introduction to the issues that are discussed throughout the book. Chapter one introduces all the people that are constantly referred to throughout the book. Ben Bahan is the narrator and introduces us to Jake Cohan, Laurel Case, Roberto Rivera and Henry Byrne. Ben is a CODA, Child Of Deaf Adults, and like many CODA’s tried to stray from the deaf community be was eventually drawn back to it. He is

Contrasting Treadwell and McCandless Free Essays

Compare and Contrast of Treadwell and McCandless When reading Into the Wild by Jon Krakauer as it documents the Journey Chris McCandless took and watching the movie The Grizzly Man as it documents Timothy Treadwell’s journey to document bears I was struck by how similar the two men, McCandless and Treadwell, really were. Yes, there were a great many differences between the two but also by how similar they were. While both men showed how they hated modern society and felt a strong desire to live outside of our society, they both also had very different takes on Alaskan wilderness and how to survive in their Journeys. We will write a custom essay sample on Contrasting Treadwell and McCandless or any similar topic only for you Order Now Just as both loved the outdoors, however, the two had very different practices concerning it. Treadwell would return to society every summer to work and prepare for his next outing and Treadwell refused to take a gun with him. In contrast, McCandless spent all of his time outdoors and away from human society unless he absolutely needed to and carried a gun with him into the wilderness. Treadwell and McCandless both felt very constrained by human society and preffered to live out in the wilderness if possible. While Treadwell would return to human society for work and to raise money or his next outing or teach others about what he learned of the bears, McCandless tried to spend as much time as he possibly could away from other humans. In Chapter five of Into the Wild it was documented that McCandless had spent at least thirty-six days without seeing another human at one point and throughout the first six chapters it is documented that the most time he ever spent in one place was two months in order to raise money to go to Alaska. Furthermore, McCandless did his best to keep people distant from him by changing his name and giving false nformation. McCandless did his best to not tell anyone where he was going, cut off all ties with his parents, and took no one with him when he went to Alaska. Comparing this to Treadwell, who told people where he was going, how long he was staying, and at a certain point started to take his girlfriend and it shows a great difference between the two men. Treadwell was a peaceful man, if unhinged due to mental disorders he refused to treat. He loved the animals he documented in his time in the wilderness, expecially the bears, and swore to never hurt them. Due to his, Treadwell never took a gun, pepper spray, or even bear repellent with him during his ten years of going to the Maze. Though essentric, Treadwell was actually rather smart in keeping the animals calm as he interacted with them. McCandless, though he displayed no real inclinations towards violence, was aware of the dangers in the wilderness. He knew the dangers of bears and wild animals and had taken a gun with him, a . 22, in order to hunt and possibly for protection even if he knew it would not actually be effective against large animals such as moose, caribou, or bears. The two men had very different views of the animals in the wilderness as is shown by this. Treadwell loved them to the point he would rather risk death then harm them while McCandless saw the dangers and prepared for them. The two men also greatly differed in how they prepared for their trips. Treadwell was well prepared with pleanty of provisions and the nessisary gear. This became more prevalent during his final years due to him having his girlfriend with him as he Alaskan wilds brought on by Jack London’s books, among others, resulted in him being woefully unprepared. When entering the Alaskan wiled the first day, McCandless only had some spare clothes, some books, a few pounds of rice, and his gun. The two men died in the Alaskan wilds due, mostly in part, to their recklessness and over-estimation on how much they could handle. Treadwell stayed longer than he should have and this resulted in both he and his girlfriend tragically dying at the jaws of a starving grizzly. Had they left as planned instead of returning to the wilds due a mishap the two would have survived. McCandless went into the wilds and did surprisingly well for himself due to sheer dumb luck that eventually ran out. His choice to go unprepared and believing he could live off the land proved fatal when he was unable to get enough food and he slowly starved to death Just days before hunters arrived at the shelter that became his temporary grave. The two men showed a remarkable love for the wilderness and strove to change their lives for the better and live amongst the romanticized versions of what is actually a harsh reality. Despite both men dying in the wilderness, personal opinion leads me to believe that McCandless was more successful in his ultimate goal to change his life. Treadwell ad wanted to raise awareness of the bear’s plight and protect them but had more than likely severely damaged the bears by habituating them to humans that could lead to more fatalities. McCandless had wanted to change his life, find a purpose. He wanted to leave society behind and see if he could truly live away from it. While he ultimately died in Alaska his entire trip before the event, traveling cross country, and even to Mexico, had changed his life and views. Prior to his final days in Alaska it was shown that McCandless had achieved what he had set out to get, his own happiness. How to cite Contrasting Treadwell and McCandless, Papers

The Outcome of the Regime Change in North Korea and the Role of South Korea during the Regime Change

â€Å"I think it’s time we talked about regime change in North Korea, and I do not mean military action, but I do believe that this is a very unstable regime,† Sen. John McCain said. Indeed the question of the regime change in North Korea is an urgent question of the modern international security politics. The international community orients its North Korean policy, believing that North Korea will fail, especially South Korea and the USA.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Outcome of the Regime Change in North Korea and the Role of South Korea during the Regime Change specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The problem of the regime change in North Korea is particularly interesting as it can bring considerable changes into the lives of Korean people, international relationships of North Korea with the United States, South Korea, other countries, as well as change the overall political situation in the wor ld. The question of the second regime change emerged after the Kim Jong-Il’s illness: â€Å"Foreign policy challenge of how the United States and its allies can prepare for the possibility that North Korean leader Kim Jong-Il’s illness becomes the source of sudden and destabilizing change in North Korea† (Stares 1). However, the background for the regime change was the nuclear politics of North Korea and its refusal to abandon production of the nuclear weapon. Politics, as well as political scientist try to predict possible outcomes of the regime change. The governments of two countries, the USA and South Korea, are extremely interested in the promotion and results of this change, â€Å"G. W. Bush laid down an ambitious marker when he declared that the US would not â€Å"tolerate† the acquisition of nuclear weapon by Iran and North Korea† (Litwak 1) Thus, in this essay, I am going to analyze possible outcomes of the regime change in North Korea and the role of South Korea during the regime change. This topic is particularly interested because it presents a perfect â€Å"raw material† for the study of the security policy. I would like to analyze this topic because I am familiar with its history and culture of both North and South Koreas. The outcomes of the first regime change from Kim Il Sung to Kim Jung IL were somehow unpredictable: many historians, US believed that North Korea will collapse. But it became even stronger. Thus, the outcomes of the outcomes of the second regime change can be seen from different angles. It can have as positive as negative results. In particular, it can influence the relationships of North Korea with other countries and improve economical, social and cultural life of the country. On the other hand, it can cause more conflicts and even war.Advertising Looking for essay on diplomacy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This topic was sel ected because the international community aspires to change the regime in North Korea believing in the positive outcomes of this affair. Moreover, there were many researches that predicted possible ways of changing the regime and how it could result for the world. Thus, doing the research of this topic it would be reasonable to analyze, first of all, the outcomes of the first regime change and how it influenced on different aspects of human life in North Korea. Second, as it has already been mentioned, there were examples when a country survived the change of regime and benefited from it (the division of Germany after the World War II on Federal Republic of Germany and German Democratic Republic and its reunion in 1990). Let us take another sample. North Korea often compared with Iraq as it presents the â€Å"threat to international security† (Pak and Kim 1). But: â€Å"The Iraq was set an important historical precedent by being the first case in which forcible regime change was the means employed to achieve no-profitable ends. †¦necessitated regime change because of Saddam Hussein’s unrelenting drive to acquire weapons of mass destruction† (Litwak 1). Third, analyzing the outcomes of the first regime change in North Korea and the results of the regime change in other countries, we should also analyze how the change can influence on the industrial, agricultural and service sector in the country, as well as on the structure of the government, social, economic life and even the culture of the country. We should also analyze why the regime change in North Korea would be beneficial for such countries as the USA and South Korea. In 2008, the relationships between South and North Korea took a turn for the worse because Lee Myung-bak became the president of South Korea who took a â€Å"sharp† position towards the DPRK.In response, the government of North Korea (North Korea accuses South of deadly spy plots, n. pag.) refused the proces s of reintegration and accused Lee Myung-bak in attempt on Kim Jung IL’s life. As a result, in June 2009, the DPRK announced the withdrawal from all peace treaties and in February, it announced the readiness to war with South Korea. However, soon, it renewed the telecommunications with it. Still, the two parts of the county have tense relationships. The government of the South Korea is supported by the USA government. These two countries are the most interested ones in the regime change in North Korea: â€Å"Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton expressed full U.S. support Monday for South Korea’s decision to take tough new steps against North Korea and said Pyongyang’s â€Å"belligerence† has created a â€Å"highly precarious situation† in the region.† ( McCormack, n. pag).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Outcome of the Regime Change in North Korea and the Role of South Korea during the Regime Change specifica lly for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Before this announcement, the president of South Korea assured that their nation would cease all the trades with the country and most of the investments. Thus, Lee also supports the idea of changes in North Korea (McCormack, n.pag). What is the point? Why are all the countries so interested in the regime change? The first answer can be rather trivial, and the most obvious one, in fact. The international community tries to preserve piece in the society and improve the lives of people of the North Korea who lived under the â€Å"the staying power of North Korean totalitarianism, which has resisted decades of sanctions and isolation† (Hirsh, n. pag). However, can we judge from what is said to us by means of media and in political speeches? Who knows the real situation? Indeed, it would be too far-fetched to estimate that North Korea is a â€Å"monster† which wants to seize the power in the world. Har dly can it be true. Perhaps, all the actions are just an attempt to preserve the independency and unitary of the state. To prove this position it should be mentioned that once â€Å"North Korean Foreign Minister Nam Sun told Weldon, â€Å"If the U.S. would sign a nonaggression pact, we would give up nuclear programs and weapons.† (Kaplan, n. pag). At any rate, the intentions of both opposed sides are their own business and in the spotlight of my essay are the possible outcomes of the regime change. The predictions of the regime change have been made by many political scientists. According to Paul B. Stares, there are: â€Å"Three potential succession scenarios: managed succession, in which the top leadership transitions smoothly; contested succession, in which government officials and factions vie for power after Kim’s demise; and failed succession, in which a new government is unable to achieve legitimacy, possibly resulting in the collapse of North Korea† (1) . The results of the regime change depend on the actions of both sides the ability to find a compromise. According to Bruce Bennett and Nina Hachigian:Advertising Looking for essay on diplomacy? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More â€Å"Ideally, regime change in North Korea would mean a neat handover of power from Kim Jong Il to a cooperative, benign leader that the United States and its allies can work with. Or, it could lead to a quick and peaceful unification with South Korea, as happened in Germany† (4). Indeed, in such case, the US would be able to control the government of the country, guarantee stability and prevent the danger of nuclear weapon. The country will be united. Such an outcome can greatly improve the prosperity of the country, â€Å"the economic prosperity has something to do with political stability† (â€Å"Modeling Regime Change† n. pag.) and the change can lead to the â€Å"revolutionary upheaval, in a likelihood implying the North’s collapse and its absorption into the rival Southern state† (â€Å"Political Change in North Korea† n. pag). Jin Pak and Michael Kim also suggest four scenarios for the regime changes in North Korea. According to them , it is the USA who has to arrange positive changes, â€Å"scenario 1 depicts a global environment in which the United States is successful in Iraq and Kim Jong IL obtains stability in his regime† (4). There are four scenarios and each of them depicts the picture when the USA changes the regime in North Korea. However, the DPRK’s main purpose, as well as the other countries, is not to be submitted to other governments. Thus, if the North Korean’s independence and safety will not be preserved, the outcomes of the regime change can be negative. The worst thing that can happen is the war as the North Korea can take military actions to prevent the collapse of the country and use its nuclear weapon. Or there can even appear the worst regime. Thus, the outcomes of the regime change can be different. Most international communities may hope that the North Korea will fail, however, it can even become stronger. Its current regime and the experience of previous historical events show that the regime will not change, but the government will only change its strategy. Works Cited Bennett, Bruce and Hachigian, Nina. â€Å"A Different Axis : Don’t Try Regime Change in North Korea†. The New York Times. Jan. 2004. Web. http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/31/opinion/31iht-edkorea_ed3_.html?pagewanted=1 Hirsh, Michael. â€Å"McCain Calls for ‘Regime Change’ in North Korea†. National Security. Nov. 2010. Web.. http://nationaljournal.com/nationalsecurity/mccain-calls-for-regime-change-in-north-korea-20101128 Kaplan, Fred. â€Å"Regime Change in North Korea?† Jul. 2003. Web. http://www.slate.com/id/2085155/ Litwak, Robert S. â€Å"Non-Proliferation and the Dilemmas of Regime Change†. Web. http://www.wilsoncenter.org/topics/pubs/survival2.pdf McCormack, John. â€Å"Obama Supports Regime Change in North Korea?† May 2010 Web.. http://www.weeklystandard.com/blogs/obama-supports-regime-change-north-korea â€Å"Model ing Regime Change†. Web.. http://www.piie.com/publications/chapters_preview/369/2iie373x.pdf North Korea accuses South of deadly spy plots. — Reuters, 18.12.2008 â€Å"Political Change in North Korea.† Web. http://www.piie.com/publications/chapters_preview/369/1iie373x.pdf Pak, Jin. and Kim, Michael. â€Å"Implications for Scenario Planning on the question, â€Å"Should the US pursue Regime Change in North Korea?† Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Studies Association, Hilton Hawaiian Village, Honolulu, Hawaii, Mar 05, 2005. http://www.allacademic.com/meta/p71138_index.html Stares, Paul B., and Joel S Wit. Center for Preventive Action. Preparing for Sudden Change in North Korea. Council on Foreign Relations, 2009 This essay on The Outcome of the Regime Change in North Korea and the Role of South Korea during the Regime Change was written and submitted by user TheFury to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

The Jungle Questions for Study and Discussion

The Jungle Questions for Study and Discussion The Jungle is one of the greatest (and most controversial) works by   Upton Sinclair.. Dedicated to the Workingmen of America, the novel detailed the unhealthy conditions of the meatpacking industry and eventually led President Theodore Roosevelt to pursue  new federal legislations.   Here are a few questions for study and discussion to think about before and after reading this work. What is important about the title: The Jungle?What are the conflicts in The Jungle? What types of conflict (physical, moral, intellectual, or emotional) did you notice in this novel?How does Upton Sinclair reveal character in The Jungle?What are some themes in the novel? How do they relate to the plot and characters?What are some symbols in The Jungle? How do they relate to the plot and characters?Is Jurgis Rudkus consistent in her actions? Is he a fully developed character? How? Why?Do you find the characters likable? Are the characters persons you would want to meet?Does the novel end the way you expected? How? Why?What is the central/primary purpose of the novel? Is the purpose important or meaningful?Why is the novel usually considered a work of protest literature?How essential is the setting to the story? Could the story have taken place anywhere else?What is the role of women in the text? How are mothers represented? What about single/independent women?Would you recommend this novel  to a friend?

Example of a Term Paper

Example of a Term Paper Example of a Term Paper Example of a Term Paper Abortion is one of the most popular topics for term paper writing.   Nevertheless, wealth of information makes it even harder to write good term papers.   offers you a free example of term paper on abortion.   Our paper writing blog has hundreds of free term paper samples on a wide range of topics.   Custom term paperwriting service is also available if you want to get a term paper written especially for you! Our prices are well-balanced to meet the financial needs of every student! Example of a Term Paper: Abortion and Religion Papal, as well as theological, opinion varied on the abortion with the times. Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241) declared that abortion was acceptable if performed before the fetus had moved, usually during the first forty days. But more than three hundred years later in 1588 Pope Sixtus V announced that all abortions were murder. And three years later in 1591 a new pope, Gregory XIV, revoked all penalties except for abortion after the forty-day period. This Church law lasted until 1869 when Pope Pius IX returned to the sanctions of Sixtus V and eliminated the distinction between an animated and a non-animated fetus and disallowed abortion at any time. This makes the present Church attitude condemning abortion only one hundred years old. A good Catholic woman living in the six hundred years between the thirteenth and the nineteenth centuries (except during the three years of Pope Sixtus' pronouncement) could have had an abortion during the first forty days of her pregnancy and remained a go od Catholic, while today abortion is banned and the rule of 1588 is followed. Pope Pius' ban on abortion in 1869 was supposedly done in an effort to counteract the spread of contraception and also as a result of the new scientific understanding of when, where and how fertilization takes place. After centuries of debate, the Church has reversed itself several times, alternating between conservative and liberal phases on its attitude toward abortion. Now, of course, it takes the view that to destroy the fertilized ovum is tantamount to murder. Pope Pius XI in 1930 said that "The life of each [mother and fetus] is equally sacred and no one has the power, not even the public authority, to destroy it." Today the Church is still strongly opposed to abortion. Thirty Roman Catholic bishops meeting in New York recently issued a statement reaffirming their position that "the Church disowns by immediate excommunication any Catholic who deliberately procures an abortion or helps someone else to do so." The letter called the state abortion law an "outrage against humanity." The letter went on to say that "each day they [abortionists] grow wealthier from the killing of unborn children some of whom have been heard to cry as they were dropped into surgical trash cans." In response to this, Dr. Jean Pakter, director of Maternity and Newborn Services for the New York City Department of Health, described the letter as "hysterical." She said that a total of twenty-six fetuses were born alive after legal abortions in New York and several were beyond the twenty-four-week legal limit for abortions. Custom Term Paper Writing Example of a term paper is written with the aim to give you a good sample of professional writing.   If you need individual assistance, you should order custom term paper writing help at this site. Custom paper writers are able to impress you with quality writing and timely delivery.   Plagiarism report is provided for free!

Fossil Group, Inc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Fossil Group, Inc - Essay Example These include brands such as Superman, Elvis Presley, Snoopy, Wonder Woman, Chronicles of Narnia, The Matrix and Star Wars. This paper outlines the inventory policies and items that Fossil Group Inc. adopts in their operations and offers in the market respectively. Apart from selling products directly to consumers through commercial websites and retail stores, Fossil owns a global distribution network that includes wholesale outlets in countries where the company has a physical presence. In countries that it does not have a physical presence, the company maintains third-party networks that facilitate the marketing and distribution of its products. Fossils’ inventory policy is primarily based on the average cost of production, which includes related freight charges and applicable duty. Inventory that is unmarketable or obsolete is determined by the difference between market value estimates and the approximate costs of inventory. Such estimates are based on assumptions regarding future demand, available channels for liquidation and prevailing market conditions. Additional reductions in inventory are thereby inevitable in the event that market conditions and future product demand are regarded by management to be less favorable than what had been projected. Reductions in inventory are also inevitable if the management determines that channels for liquidation are insufficient. The company’s success in inventory management is hence largely attributed to continuous assessment of off-price sales and regular updates of inventory estimates. Revenue from sales of products likely to be subjected to agreements in inventory consignment is often determined at the point where title and risk of loss has been transferred, products have successfully been delivered, buying price at the end of the chain can easily be determined, and there is reasonable assurance in collectability of the product. In the event that inventory is

KPMG case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

KPMG case - Essay Example Company had initial public offering in 2004 with a par value of $0.50 Price per share as of year end of 2007 plunged to $12.00 from $15.75 of 1st quarter quote with an EPS of $0.69. The company had approximately 9,500 holders as of February 29, 2008. This part will show trends of profitability, liquidity and solvency using ratios for the three year period. The trend analysis will present any significant fluctuation or movement in the three year operations that will have an impact in its financial operations. It will also be compared to industry sector using industry index as benchmark. (Reuters) Analysis will be presented in 3 parts, profitability, liquidity and solvency ratios. (See Annexes 1 and 2) Definition of financial terms provided by Investopedia. The comparison of the financial performance of the company against the industry (Reuters) where TMH belong and trend analysis of its own performance provided an insight on the strengths and weaknesses of the company and is presented below. Cash flows of the company consist of retained earnings and proceeds from loan transactions. The cash flows are used to pay debts, interests, taxes and other operating expenses. Retained earnings are not sufficient to fund payments for interests, taxes and long term debts. Accounts receivables and inventory of homes locks up cash for operations and affects cash flows. A slow turn over of accounts receivables and inventories reflects problems in the efficiency of management. The usual 120 to 180 loan repayments should be looked into as large amount of cash is tied up into this. 3.2. Complexity of underlying transactions. The sale of mortgage manufactured home contracts to unrelated financial institutions involves complex transaction particularly to default payments of mortgage borrowers. Recent economic crisis saw foreclosures of mortgage properties in financial institutions, and these losses could be passed on to TMH in cases of default. 3.3. Extent to

Analysis of JFK (1991) and Thin Blue Line

Analysis of JFK (1991) and Thin Blue Line Both films, for example, pore over minutae that may or may not be significant (umbrellas opening in JFK, a dropped thickshake in The Thin Blue Line) to draw the viewer ever more deeply into the world of the crime scene. Yet neither film stops at a simple recitation of facts: both look at the States role in events and suggest an explanation for the alleged cover up. In JFK, this is Stones highly controversial suggestion that the CIA and the military-industrial complex had a vested interest in seeing President Kennedy dead because he was shortly to scale down Americas involvement in Vietnam. In The Thin Blue Line, two related theories are suggested for the official insistence on trying Randall Adams: firstly, that David Harris account had the advantage of providing the police with an eye-witness, while if Harris was himself the murderer, no reliable witness existed; and secondly, that Harris could not be tried as an adult, thus robbing the District Attorney of the much-sought death sentence for the murder of a policeman. These theories are communicated through devices commonly associated with fictional narratives, such as a highly evocative musical score (Phillip Glass music for The Thin Blue Line invokes a melancholy sense of helplessness, while John Williams score for JFK has a more urgent tone, suggestive of furtive conspiracies and forces careening out of control). And both counterpoint different modes of filmmaking as they do so, contrasting invented material filmed in a classical Hollywood style with documentary or faux-documentary footage. The similarity in effect of the two films fast-paced juxtaposition of styles is striking, and suggests Stones approach may have been influenced by Morris work. Yet while both films have an over-riding concern with the filmmaker uncovering facts, that might be called the outer narrative, each constructs a contrasting relationship between the narrative and documentary elements within the text. In JFK, Stone uses an interior narrative of Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner) investigating the case. While Garrison is essentially a surrogate for the filmmaker, so that the film cannot be considered as the story of Jim Garrison,3 this narrative is provided moments that function simply as character drama with little or no relationship to the larger argument (such as Garrisons arguments and reconciliation with his wife, or a Norman Rockwell moment4 with his children). This, then, is an example of classical Hollywood-style fictional filmmaking. This is then ruptured by the moments of documentary and faux-documentary that expand on Stones argument as it is being expressed by Garrison. This includes what we might call genuine documentary material: the Zapruder film of the assassination and archival photographs (such as of Kennedys autopsy, or the photograph of Lee Harvey Oswald holding the rifle). It also includes a large number of re-enactments, which are very often presented in a simulated documentary style (grainy or black and white film stock, hand-held cameras). This faux-documentary material is often juxtaposed with the genuine documentary material in a manner that blends the two together (the Zapruder footage is matched by staged footage using similar film stock, and the autopsy photographs are intercut with shots of a wax dummy of Kennedy). The Thin Blue Line shares the same outer narrative (filmmaker investigating), but the inner narrative (the story of Randall Adams) is not constructed in a classical Hollywood style. Instead, it is told through one of the standard modes of documentary filmmaking identified by Bill Nichols5: direct address by participants in an interview format (with the interviewer removed through editing). As with Stones film, this inner narrative is supported by evidence, but again the mode of presentation is reversed: the principal method used to support the witnesses testimony is through reconstructions of the crime scene that, while stylized and fragmented, are constructed as a miniature classically constructed narrative. This nesting of different modes might be tabulated as follows: My point, however, is that the films differ in mode, but use mirror-image forms of the same structure. JFK is primarily a fictional film, which employs a documentary style when re-enacting speculated events. The Thin Blue Line is primarily a documentary, but employs a style borrowed from fictional films in its re-enactments. If the two films share so much in common, and slide so fluidly from documentary to fictional modes so quickly, does this suggest the difference in the two forms might be largely cosmetic? Fiction can be used to express truths about the real world, and the documentary is can be used in ways that obscure the truth or construct falsehoods. If the fundamental difference between fiction and non-fiction is taken as the link to the real, and it is shown that documentaries and fictions share similar relationships to the real, then the two forms start to look more alike: not the same, exactly, but similar. JFK and The Thin Blue Line, by this way of thinking, are then only superficially different types of movies. They share the same structure and the fiction versus documentary dichotomy is more like a difference in genre than a fundamental distinction. This is not to invest the superficial crossover of techniques between the two forms with a significance it does not posses. Documentaries are not fictions just because The Blair Witch Project (1999) does such a good job of pretending to be a real document, or even because Rats in the Ranks (1996) works so well as a narrative. Rather, the downplaying of the documentary / fiction division is based upon a deep-seated cynicism about claims to truth in documentary. That there is such reluctance to accept truth at face value in documentary should not be surprising. Early or classic film studies was based largely on arguments about the relationships between film and reality. While this debate is too detailed to fully explore, it is important to touch upon briefly because much writing upon documentary echoes the arguments of these early writers. The direct link to reality might be seen as a defining feature of the documentary, but it was also seen in the first half of the century as one of the defining features of the film medium itself. The cinema appeared to be an even more perfect method for mechanically reproducing reality than the still photographs that preceded it. This added urgency to arguments of aesthetics that centred on whether the role of the artist was to attempt to recreate the real world, or rather to interpret or even transcend the real.6 These arguments were therefore central to classic film theory and resolved into two broad strands of argument that echo the aesthetic positions described. Thus writers such as Siegfried Kraceur and Andre Bazin had approaches that emphasised films role as a mirror to the real. Of more interest to the current discussion, however, are early anti-realists such as Rudolf Arnheim. In his Film as Art, his defence for cinemas status as serious artistic medium (rather than a mechanical process) is built a round a series of explanations of the way in which film differs from the real.7 Three dimensional surfaces are projected on a plane surface. Perception of depth is lost. In the black and white cinema with reference to which Arnheim formulated his thesis, colour is eliminated. Lighting distorts. Editing interrupts the flow of time and creates artistic possibilities through the use of montage. Non-visual stimulus is absent (or, after the coming of sound, limited), and even the visual world is limited by the edge of the screen. This catalogue of distortions is, for Arnheim, the very basis for the creation of aesthetic systems by which films can signify meanings. After establishing the above points, he sets about demonstrating how each of these limitations in depicting the real is used as a method of artistic expression8. Subsequent film theory moved beyond Arnheims formulations, but has tended to take them as a given in the sense that few would still argue that the central project of film is limited to the reproduction or reflection of reality. Given that such formulations are at the foundation of later film theory, it should not be surprising that they were echoed when subsequent theorists turned their minds to issues regarding documentary, and particularly its relation to the real. Noà «l Carroll attributes much of this writing to a backlash against premature claims by proponents of direct cinema that their method of cinema provided unmitigated access to the real.9 These documentarists attempted to avoid the filmmakers intervention and interpretation, reacting to the overt imposition of a viewpoint present in traditional Griersonian forms of documentary. However, as Carroll puts it, [d]irect cinema opened a can of worms and then got eaten by them.10 It was quickly argued that direct cinema was every bit as interpretive as Griersonian documentaries. For the distortions of reality that were identified by Arnheim are equally present in documentary cinema, but with different implications. Instead of being the unambiguously positive means to artistic expression, every limitation of the medium is instead a problematic point of mediation by the filmmaker. The limitations of the film frame, for example, force choices upon even the most non-interventionist direct cinema filmmaker. And with every choice the filmmaker is placing the film at a greater distance from reality. Carroll quotes Eric Barnouw making this point: To be sure, some documentarists claim to be objective a term that seems to renounce an interpretive role. The claim may be strategic, but it is surely meaningless. The documentarist, like any communicator in any medium, makes endless choices. He [sic] selects topics, people, vistas, angles, lens, juxtapositions, sounds, words. Each selection is an expression of his point of view, whether he is aware of it or not, whether he acknowledges it or not. Even behind the first step, selection of a topic, there is a motive It is in selecting and arranging his findings that he expresses himself; these choices are, in effect, comments. And whether he adopts the stance of observer, or chronicler or whatever, he cannot escape his subjectivity. He presents his version of the world.11 Such an argument certainly seems to cast doubt over the potential for objectivity in documentary cinema. Carried to an extreme, it is the presentation of a version of the world rather than the world itself that can be seen as rendering documentary a form of fiction. Either way, the prospects for documentary truth in such a model seem grim indeed. It should be noted that Carroll puts little faith in such an approach to documentary, and his counter-argument will be returned to. Before doing so, however, it is worth noting that more recently, Carroll has drawn the distinction between what he calls the selectivity argument (recited above) and more global postmodern scepticism of claims to truth.12 The latter is based not in the assumptions of classical film studies, but rather the wider discussions about the way any human discourse imposes meaning and structure on real events. For example, historical accounts impose a narrative structure onto events to make them intelligible, and a distinction must be drawn between the real events (which actually occurred) and the account (which lacks an independent historical existence): The states of affairs and events the historian alludes to do have a basis in historical reality, and the historians claims about those states of affairs and events can be literally true or false. But the narratives in which those states of affairs and events figure are inventions, constructions, indeed, fictions. The narrative structure in the historical recounting is not true or false; it is fictional.13 This point of such an observation may seem a little obscure. If the narrative structure imposed in a historical account is considered independently of the statements of historical fact that it is used to explain, then of course it must be considered fictional. If, however, a documentary text is considered in its entirety, then it is open to questioning about the validity of the historians factual claims (including analysis as to whether the narrative structure is an accurate or fair way of interpreting the real events) in a way that fiction is not. Certainly the argument is here being posed by Carroll (albeit following Michael Renov and Hayden White) as a prelude to arguing that it is unsupportable14. However, Carroll also refers to an alternative model for looking at the link between non-fiction and fiction, mounted by Bill Nichols in his book Representing Reality, which is more subtle and worth dealing with directly. Nichols, unlike the other theorists alluded to by Carroll, does not argue that documentaries must be considered fiction. He recognises that the existence of an external, real-world referent is an important distinction that cannot be dismissed as irrelevant. The world of a fiction film is a unique, imaginary domain, but the world of documentary is different: Instead of a world, we are offered access to the world.15 This claim to representation of the real means that documentaries are not simply narratives: they are also argumentative, if only in the sense that they make claims (even if only implicitly) about what is true. They are therefore a fiction (un)like any other.16 However, Nichols remains troubled by these claims to truth. While the documentary is distinguished from fiction by its links to the real, this representation is rendered problematic by the apparent impossibility of rendering truth objectively. Documentaries, while not fiction, share with fiction those very qualities that thoroughly compromise any rigorous objectivity, if they dont make it impossible Objectivity has been under no less siege than realism, and for many of the same reasons. It, too, is a way of representing the world that denies its own processes of construction and their formative effect. Any given standard for objectivity will have embedded political assumptions In documentary, these assumptions might include belief in the self-evident nature of facts, in rhetorical persuasion as a necessary and appropriate part of representation, and in the capacity of the documentary text to affect its audience through its implicit or explicit claim of This is so, isnt it?17 Nichols argument is reminiscent of those strands of theoretical thought that view ideology as an inescapable and all pervasive force. Documentaries do make claims about the truth that are open to evaluation, but unfortunately, according to Nichols, our institutional mechanisms for assessing such claims are themselves suspect. If such an approach is accepted, evaluation of the arguments made by Oliver Stone and Errol Morris might be highly problematic. Carroll, however, is not willing to concede that any of these arguments establish either that non-fiction is a form of fiction, or that objectivity is impossible. Firstly, he argues that the cinema does not posses any unique tendency towards bias compared to other media. The same arguments about selectivity that Barnouw raises with respect to film are equally applicable to other media and fields of enquiry.18 The particular causes of distortion may be different, but any historian for example may select, manipulate, interpret or emphasise aspects of their material just as a documentary maker can. Thus if non-fiction film is said to be subjective due to its selectivity, so must any field of human enquiry, such as history and science. In the earlier of the two articles I have discussed (written in 1983), Carroll is confident that such a wide-ranging scepticism would not be seriously proposed.19 As we have seen, by 1996 that was exactly the argument Carroll was responding to. Nevertheless, in 1983 his defence against the selectivity argument is based upon the notion of objectivity. In any given field of argument, at any given time, there are patterns of reasoning, standards for observation, and methods for assessing evidence which are used for getting to the truth.20 A piece of research is considered objective insofar as it abides by these norms. Likewise, non-fiction films may be assessed against similar codes, and will be considered biased or subjective if they fail to meet them. That selectivity may make bias possible, or even likely, does not preclude the possibility of a film according with established standards of objectivity. The obvious differences between the real world and the filmed presentation prevent film from substituting for lived experience, but they do not prevent documentaries from being objective. This central assumption of this argument that there are standards of objectivity that can be used to judge the truth is exactly the assumption that we have seen Bill Nichols question. Carroll, however, disputes all of Nichols contentions that are cited above. Firstly, he does not accept that objectivity demands that a film call attention to its processes of construction. After all, the fact that a non-fiction film is constructed is understood by any audience and does not need to be spelt out. Self-reflexive analyses of the filmmaking process or the authors own subjectivity might be a feature of many recent documentaries, but for Carrol this is an artistic device, rather than a necessary benchmark for objectivity. Nor does he accept that any standard for objectivity has embedded political assumptions, even accepting Nichols very broad definitions (outlined above) of what constitutes a political assumption. A belief in the self-evident nature of facts, for example, might be a political assumption when the facts being presented are politically charged falsehoods. Yet the acceptance that some claims of self-evident truth are suspect does not mean that there can be no self-evident facts. With regards to rhetorical persuasion, he argues that films can either eschew such devices altogether (he cites nature documentaries as an example),21 or employ rhetorical structures in the service of objective discourse. Similarly, he regards the implicit claim that this is so, isnt it as present in virtually any assertion and hence neither a political assumption nor a barrier to objectivity. Carrolls approach to these arguments about the prospects for truth or objectivity in documentary is often to return to examples where the truth claimed by the documentary seems clear and uncontentious (as with his common use of nature documentaries as discussion points). The linking thread of the arguments he presents is that the theorists he criticises have mistaken the difficulty in presenting objective truth for an impossibility, often by focussing on exactly the texts where the truth is most problematic.22 It is worth returning to The Thin Blue Line and JFK at this point, since these films both explore events that are subject to considerable conjecture. Neither could be accused of assuming the truth about these events is self-evident (quite the opposite), yet both nevertheless ultimately make vital factual claims. As noted already, these claims question state-sanctioned verdicts, and both films led to a public discussion that forced official re-examination of the cases: The Thin Blue Line forced the retrial of Randall Adams, while JFK contributed to the passing of the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992, which appointed an Assassination Records Review Board (AARB) to re-examine unreleased information about the assassination.23 More than a decade later, with Randall Adams freed from jail, it seems fair to say that Morris case has been widely accepted as true. Oliver Stone, too, has been partially vindicated by subsequent re-examination of the case, with records released by the AARB that support some of his allegations (such as tampering with records of Kennedys autopsy).24 Yet, despite such small victories, and acceptance by many filmgoers of Stones theory of the assassination, JFK remains subject to fierce scholarly criticism of both its methods and conclusions that stands in contrast to the reception of The Thin Blue Line. Linda Williams, in her discussion of the two films, dismisses JFK as paranoid fiction,25 and the widespread condemnation of Stones film by both popular and academic press is well documented.26 Clearly this has much to do with the nature of the case Stone discusses. The Kennedy assassination, for obvious reasons, is a much more familiar event and one that had been the subject of considerably more public discussion than the Randall Adams prosecution. Furthermore, while The Thin Blue Line avoids underlining the political implications of its own conclusions, JFK is explicitly critical of the government and media, calling the assassination a coup detat and coming very close to suggesting former president Lyndon Johnson was involved.27 However, the difference in the reception of the two films cannot be explained simply through reference to the argument each presents. Within the very similar structures outlined at the start of this essay, there are also crucial differences that also explain much of the negative response to Stones film compared to Morris. In his consideration of JFK, Robert Rosenstone notes that there are considerable constraints over the depiction of historical events on the screen.28 In particular, he sees the need to invent detail and compress events to shape a narrative as a limitation that must be negotiated by any historical film. While he is referring to narrative features such as JFK, his argument is equally applicable to the summaries of and suppositions regarding events in The Thin Blue Line. This argument has clear overtones of the discussions of documentaries distortions of truth through selectivity that have already been cited. Like Carroll, Rosenstone argues that when a historical filmmaker such as Stone invents or compresses events, he or she is exercising the same type of discretion that the author of any written history must.29 Such inventions can be considered true (at least to a point) in the sense that they can be verified, documented, or reasonably argued. The problem, notes Rosenstone, is that the verification must occur outside the world of the film. When Stone argues in JFK that President Kennedy was about to withdraw troops from Vietnam, the information is justified by reference to a real memorandum (National Security Action Memo 263), but a fictitious character makes the reference. Assuming no foreknowledge of the case, the audience has no way while watching the film of even knowing that the memorandum really existed, let alone being sure that it supports the conclusion Stone draws. If Stones conclusion is to be examined, the audience must go beyond viewing and read the relevant documents (or scholarly discussion of them) for themselves. If they do so, they will, as Rosenstone states, be undertaking the same kind of critique and review that a work of written history is subjected to. This process of measuring a film against standards of objectivity is exactly that which Carroll highlights as the means of linking non-fiction films to the truth. Stone has actively sought to enter into such debates, mounting extensive defences of the historical accuracy of JFK and his other works.30 That JFK was so controversial was perhaps partly due to the fact that audiences do not necessarily judge films within such evaluative frameworks: unlike the target audience for written history, they may assume that what they see is true and not enter into the debates as to the films veracity. Even assuming an engaged, sceptical audience, however, it is also the case that Stones film does not make the separation of truth from fiction a straightforward task. I have already suggested that the film possesses three layers of exposition: an outer narrative (Stones case), an inner narrative (Garrisons story), and evidence (presented as documentary material and re-enactments). The inner narrative story of Jim Garrison (which is likely to be understood by most audiences as at least partially fictional and not taken as literally true) is often weaved seamlessly in with the evidence (more likely to be seen as Stones presentation of true material). Garrison, for example, meets the mysterious Mr X (Donald Sutherland) in Washington, who outlines a hypothesis about who killed Kennedy and why. This calls forth a series of re-enactments of high level discussions between officials that are weaved into Mr Xs account. The narrative is calling forth evidence, but the difficulty with this sequence is in separating what material is a fictional narrative device, what is speculated, and what is documented truth. For example, are we to accept that Garrison really did meet an anonymous official who told him this information, and take that as evidence that Stones case is true? Or are we to take this as simply part of the inner narrative, a method of presenting evidence? As mentioned, Mr X talks in detail of a real memorandum in order to put Stones case that Kennedy wished to withdraw from Vietnam. An audience might correctly surmise that the existence of such a memo (putting aside its meaning) is a documented fact. However, this quickly leads into discussions of the reaction to this memo within high levels of the government, and the point at which history slides into speculation in this sequence is by no means readily apparent. The re-enactment portions of the sequence are presented in a stylised style using black and white photography, but this does not flag them as conjectural, since Stone switches between film stocks throughout the film without drawing such distinctions. (Elsewhere in the film, for example, the Zapruder film of the assassination, is alternated with simulated footage shot in the same style.) The effect of these aesthetic decisions by Stone is to confuse the boundaries between non-fiction and fiction in a way that makes application of objective standards for assessing truth difficult. The audience can only infer which sections of the film are intended to be read as non-fiction and subject to such examination. Written in October 2001 for the Melbourne University subject Ethnographic and Documentary Cinema. Notes 1. This is the concluding sentence of Eric Barnouw, Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film, (Oxford University Press, New York Oxford, 1993, 2nd Revised Edition), p. 349. 2. The list of similarities between the two films that follows draws partly on Linda Williams, Mirrors without Memories: Truth, History and The Thin Blue Line in Barry Keith Grant Jeanette Sloniowski (eds), Documenting the Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video (Wayne State UP, Detroit, 1998), p 381. 3. The films Garrison, for example, has access to information the real Garrison did not, in order to allow Stone to communicate it to audiences. For example, In the movie we attributed to Garrison the information about Shaws background but in real life Jim did not have access to that information at that time. (Oliver Stone audio commentary, JFK DVD, Region 4 Special Edition Directors Cut release, Warner Brothers, 1 hour 28 mins approx.) 4. This phrase is Stones own: JFK audio commentary, op. cit., 2 hours 10 mins approx. While these scenes are also used to communicate information about the larger case, this is an example of narrative efficiency, and does not contradict my point that they do contain aspects (such as the melodromatic touch of Garrisons children asking Dont you love us any more?) which function simply as domestic drama, with no relation to the case against Clay Shaw. 5. Nichols has revisited and slightly reformulated these modes over time, but they can be summarised as expository (ie voice-of-God documentaries that use direct address to tell the audience a truth), observational (cinema verite style films that aim to observe events without participating), interactive (interview based films that allows for direct address by participants, while allowing for filmmakers interaction through questioning), reflexive (films that draw attention to the documentarys own methods), and performative (stressing an individual, subjective position, while downplaying objective or referential aspects). See Bill Nichols: The Voice of Documentary, Film Quarterly 36, no 3 (Spring 1983); Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary (1991, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis), Chapter 2; and (for the perfomative mode) Performing Documentary, Blurred Boundaries: Questions of Meaning in Contemporary Culture (c. 1994, Indiana UP, Bloomington), pp 92-106. 6. This point and the subsequent discussion of classical film theory draw on the discussions in the anthologies Gerald Mast et al. (eds.), Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, (Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1992), pp. 3-7, and Antony Easthorpe, Contemporary Film Theory (Longman, London New York, 1993), pp. 2-5. 7. Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art (Faber Faber, London, 1958), esp. pp. 17-37. 8. Ibid., p. 37-114. 9. Noà «l Carroll, From Real to Reel: Entangled in Nonfiction film, in Noà «l Carroll, Theorizing the Moving Image (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996), p. 224-252. (Originally published in Philosophic Exchange in 1983, and will be cited in future as Carroll (1996/1983) to distinguish it from his piece in Post-Theory cited below). Reference to direct cinema is p. 225. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid., p. 226. Carroll is quoting from the first edition of Barnouws Documentary, citing p. 287-288 of that edition (Oxford University Press, New York, 1974). The nearest equivalent to this quote I can find in the third edition (op. cit.) is at p. 344. 12. Noà «l Carroll, Nonfiction films and Postmodernist Skepticism in Noà «l Carrol David Bordwell (eds.), Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies, (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1996), pp. 283-306. 13. Ibid., p. 288. Emphasis is Carrolls. 14. Carroll is frequently belligerent about the texts he discusses but is particularly so about Renovs Theorizing Documentary, describing it as a state of the art compendium of received thinking about the documentary film, and dismissing Renovs argument as a red herring. Ibid., p. 285 291. 15. Both quotes Nichols, 1991, op. cit., p. 109. Emphasis is Nichols. 16. This is the title of the second part of Nichols book. How helpful this argumentative nature is as a distinction between fiction and documentary (and how unlike any other form of fiction documentary can be said to be) is debatable given that fiction can be every bit as argumentative as documentary (as JFK demonstrates). 17. Ibid., p. 195. 18. Carroll (1996/1983), op. cit., p. 226. 19. Carroll: I mention this because I do not think that commentators who conclude that the nonfiction film is subjective intend their remarks as a mere gloss on the notion that everything is subjective. But that, I fear, is the untoward implication of their attack. Ibid., p. 226. 20. Ibid., p. 230. See also Carroll, 1996, op. cit. pp. 283-285. 21. Carroll, 1996, p. 294. 22. See, for example, Ibid., p. 293, regarding film scholars focus on art-documentary. 23. Michael L. Kurtz, Oliver Stone, JFK, and History, in Robert Brent Toplin (ed), Oliver Analysis of JFK (1991) and Thin Blue Line Analysis of JFK (1991) and Thin Blue Line Both films, for example, pore over minutae that may or may not be significant (umbrellas opening in JFK, a dropped thickshake in The Thin Blue Line) to draw the viewer ever more deeply into the world of the crime scene. Yet neither film stops at a simple recitation of facts: both look at the States role in events and suggest an explanation for the alleged cover up. In JFK, this is Stones highly controversial suggestion that the CIA and the military-industrial complex had a vested interest in seeing President Kennedy dead because he was shortly to scale down Americas involvement in Vietnam. In The Thin Blue Line, two related theories are suggested for the official insistence on trying Randall Adams: firstly, that David Harris account had the advantage of providing the police with an eye-witness, while if Harris was himself the murderer, no reliable witness existed; and secondly, that Harris could not be tried as an adult, thus robbing the District Attorney of the much-sought death sentence for the murder of a policeman. These theories are communicated through devices commonly associated with fictional narratives, such as a highly evocative musical score (Phillip Glass music for The Thin Blue Line invokes a melancholy sense of helplessness, while John Williams score for JFK has a more urgent tone, suggestive of furtive conspiracies and forces careening out of control). And both counterpoint different modes of filmmaking as they do so, contrasting invented material filmed in a classical Hollywood style with documentary or faux-documentary footage. The similarity in effect of the two films fast-paced juxtaposition of styles is striking, and suggests Stones approach may have been influenced by Morris work. Yet while both films have an over-riding concern with the filmmaker uncovering facts, that might be called the outer narrative, each constructs a contrasting relationship between the narrative and documentary elements within the text. In JFK, Stone uses an interior narrative of Jim Garrison (Kevin Costner) investigating the case. While Garrison is essentially a surrogate for the filmmaker, so that the film cannot be considered as the story of Jim Garrison,3 this narrative is provided moments that function simply as character drama with little or no relationship to the larger argument (such as Garrisons arguments and reconciliation with his wife, or a Norman Rockwell moment4 with his children). This, then, is an example of classical Hollywood-style fictional filmmaking. This is then ruptured by the moments of documentary and faux-documentary that expand on Stones argument as it is being expressed by Garrison. This includes what we might call genuine documentary material: the Zapruder film of the assassination and archival photographs (such as of Kennedys autopsy, or the photograph of Lee Harvey Oswald holding the rifle). It also includes a large number of re-enactments, which are very often presented in a simulated documentary style (grainy or black and white film stock, hand-held cameras). This faux-documentary material is often juxtaposed with the genuine documentary material in a manner that blends the two together (the Zapruder footage is matched by staged footage using similar film stock, and the autopsy photographs are intercut with shots of a wax dummy of Kennedy). The Thin Blue Line shares the same outer narrative (filmmaker investigating), but the inner narrative (the story of Randall Adams) is not constructed in a classical Hollywood style. Instead, it is told through one of the standard modes of documentary filmmaking identified by Bill Nichols5: direct address by participants in an interview format (with the interviewer removed through editing). As with Stones film, this inner narrative is supported by evidence, but again the mode of presentation is reversed: the principal method used to support the witnesses testimony is through reconstructions of the crime scene that, while stylized and fragmented, are constructed as a miniature classically constructed narrative. This nesting of different modes might be tabulated as follows: My point, however, is that the films differ in mode, but use mirror-image forms of the same structure. JFK is primarily a fictional film, which employs a documentary style when re-enacting speculated events. The Thin Blue Line is primarily a documentary, but employs a style borrowed from fictional films in its re-enactments. If the two films share so much in common, and slide so fluidly from documentary to fictional modes so quickly, does this suggest the difference in the two forms might be largely cosmetic? Fiction can be used to express truths about the real world, and the documentary is can be used in ways that obscure the truth or construct falsehoods. If the fundamental difference between fiction and non-fiction is taken as the link to the real, and it is shown that documentaries and fictions share similar relationships to the real, then the two forms start to look more alike: not the same, exactly, but similar. JFK and The Thin Blue Line, by this way of thinking, are then only superficially different types of movies. They share the same structure and the fiction versus documentary dichotomy is more like a difference in genre than a fundamental distinction. This is not to invest the superficial crossover of techniques between the two forms with a significance it does not posses. Documentaries are not fictions just because The Blair Witch Project (1999) does such a good job of pretending to be a real document, or even because Rats in the Ranks (1996) works so well as a narrative. Rather, the downplaying of the documentary / fiction division is based upon a deep-seated cynicism about claims to truth in documentary. That there is such reluctance to accept truth at face value in documentary should not be surprising. Early or classic film studies was based largely on arguments about the relationships between film and reality. While this debate is too detailed to fully explore, it is important to touch upon briefly because much writing upon documentary echoes the arguments of these early writers. The direct link to reality might be seen as a defining feature of the documentary, but it was also seen in the first half of the century as one of the defining features of the film medium itself. The cinema appeared to be an even more perfect method for mechanically reproducing reality than the still photographs that preceded it. This added urgency to arguments of aesthetics that centred on whether the role of the artist was to attempt to recreate the real world, or rather to interpret or even transcend the real.6 These arguments were therefore central to classic film theory and resolved into two broad strands of argument that echo the aesthetic positions described. Thus writers such as Siegfried Kraceur and Andre Bazin had approaches that emphasised films role as a mirror to the real. Of more interest to the current discussion, however, are early anti-realists such as Rudolf Arnheim. In his Film as Art, his defence for cinemas status as serious artistic medium (rather than a mechanical process) is built a round a series of explanations of the way in which film differs from the real.7 Three dimensional surfaces are projected on a plane surface. Perception of depth is lost. In the black and white cinema with reference to which Arnheim formulated his thesis, colour is eliminated. Lighting distorts. Editing interrupts the flow of time and creates artistic possibilities through the use of montage. Non-visual stimulus is absent (or, after the coming of sound, limited), and even the visual world is limited by the edge of the screen. This catalogue of distortions is, for Arnheim, the very basis for the creation of aesthetic systems by which films can signify meanings. After establishing the above points, he sets about demonstrating how each of these limitations in depicting the real is used as a method of artistic expression8. Subsequent film theory moved beyond Arnheims formulations, but has tended to take them as a given in the sense that few would still argue that the central project of film is limited to the reproduction or reflection of reality. Given that such formulations are at the foundation of later film theory, it should not be surprising that they were echoed when subsequent theorists turned their minds to issues regarding documentary, and particularly its relation to the real. Noà «l Carroll attributes much of this writing to a backlash against premature claims by proponents of direct cinema that their method of cinema provided unmitigated access to the real.9 These documentarists attempted to avoid the filmmakers intervention and interpretation, reacting to the overt imposition of a viewpoint present in traditional Griersonian forms of documentary. However, as Carroll puts it, [d]irect cinema opened a can of worms and then got eaten by them.10 It was quickly argued that direct cinema was every bit as interpretive as Griersonian documentaries. For the distortions of reality that were identified by Arnheim are equally present in documentary cinema, but with different implications. Instead of being the unambiguously positive means to artistic expression, every limitation of the medium is instead a problematic point of mediation by the filmmaker. The limitations of the film frame, for example, force choices upon even the most non-interventionist direct cinema filmmaker. And with every choice the filmmaker is placing the film at a greater distance from reality. Carroll quotes Eric Barnouw making this point: To be sure, some documentarists claim to be objective a term that seems to renounce an interpretive role. The claim may be strategic, but it is surely meaningless. The documentarist, like any communicator in any medium, makes endless choices. He [sic] selects topics, people, vistas, angles, lens, juxtapositions, sounds, words. Each selection is an expression of his point of view, whether he is aware of it or not, whether he acknowledges it or not. Even behind the first step, selection of a topic, there is a motive It is in selecting and arranging his findings that he expresses himself; these choices are, in effect, comments. And whether he adopts the stance of observer, or chronicler or whatever, he cannot escape his subjectivity. He presents his version of the world.11 Such an argument certainly seems to cast doubt over the potential for objectivity in documentary cinema. Carried to an extreme, it is the presentation of a version of the world rather than the world itself that can be seen as rendering documentary a form of fiction. Either way, the prospects for documentary truth in such a model seem grim indeed. It should be noted that Carroll puts little faith in such an approach to documentary, and his counter-argument will be returned to. Before doing so, however, it is worth noting that more recently, Carroll has drawn the distinction between what he calls the selectivity argument (recited above) and more global postmodern scepticism of claims to truth.12 The latter is based not in the assumptions of classical film studies, but rather the wider discussions about the way any human discourse imposes meaning and structure on real events. For example, historical accounts impose a narrative structure onto events to make them intelligible, and a distinction must be drawn between the real events (which actually occurred) and the account (which lacks an independent historical existence): The states of affairs and events the historian alludes to do have a basis in historical reality, and the historians claims about those states of affairs and events can be literally true or false. But the narratives in which those states of affairs and events figure are inventions, constructions, indeed, fictions. The narrative structure in the historical recounting is not true or false; it is fictional.13 This point of such an observation may seem a little obscure. If the narrative structure imposed in a historical account is considered independently of the statements of historical fact that it is used to explain, then of course it must be considered fictional. If, however, a documentary text is considered in its entirety, then it is open to questioning about the validity of the historians factual claims (including analysis as to whether the narrative structure is an accurate or fair way of interpreting the real events) in a way that fiction is not. Certainly the argument is here being posed by Carroll (albeit following Michael Renov and Hayden White) as a prelude to arguing that it is unsupportable14. However, Carroll also refers to an alternative model for looking at the link between non-fiction and fiction, mounted by Bill Nichols in his book Representing Reality, which is more subtle and worth dealing with directly. Nichols, unlike the other theorists alluded to by Carroll, does not argue that documentaries must be considered fiction. He recognises that the existence of an external, real-world referent is an important distinction that cannot be dismissed as irrelevant. The world of a fiction film is a unique, imaginary domain, but the world of documentary is different: Instead of a world, we are offered access to the world.15 This claim to representation of the real means that documentaries are not simply narratives: they are also argumentative, if only in the sense that they make claims (even if only implicitly) about what is true. They are therefore a fiction (un)like any other.16 However, Nichols remains troubled by these claims to truth. While the documentary is distinguished from fiction by its links to the real, this representation is rendered problematic by the apparent impossibility of rendering truth objectively. Documentaries, while not fiction, share with fiction those very qualities that thoroughly compromise any rigorous objectivity, if they dont make it impossible Objectivity has been under no less siege than realism, and for many of the same reasons. It, too, is a way of representing the world that denies its own processes of construction and their formative effect. Any given standard for objectivity will have embedded political assumptions In documentary, these assumptions might include belief in the self-evident nature of facts, in rhetorical persuasion as a necessary and appropriate part of representation, and in the capacity of the documentary text to affect its audience through its implicit or explicit claim of This is so, isnt it?17 Nichols argument is reminiscent of those strands of theoretical thought that view ideology as an inescapable and all pervasive force. Documentaries do make claims about the truth that are open to evaluation, but unfortunately, according to Nichols, our institutional mechanisms for assessing such claims are themselves suspect. If such an approach is accepted, evaluation of the arguments made by Oliver Stone and Errol Morris might be highly problematic. Carroll, however, is not willing to concede that any of these arguments establish either that non-fiction is a form of fiction, or that objectivity is impossible. Firstly, he argues that the cinema does not posses any unique tendency towards bias compared to other media. The same arguments about selectivity that Barnouw raises with respect to film are equally applicable to other media and fields of enquiry.18 The particular causes of distortion may be different, but any historian for example may select, manipulate, interpret or emphasise aspects of their material just as a documentary maker can. Thus if non-fiction film is said to be subjective due to its selectivity, so must any field of human enquiry, such as history and science. In the earlier of the two articles I have discussed (written in 1983), Carroll is confident that such a wide-ranging scepticism would not be seriously proposed.19 As we have seen, by 1996 that was exactly the argument Carroll was responding to. Nevertheless, in 1983 his defence against the selectivity argument is based upon the notion of objectivity. In any given field of argument, at any given time, there are patterns of reasoning, standards for observation, and methods for assessing evidence which are used for getting to the truth.20 A piece of research is considered objective insofar as it abides by these norms. Likewise, non-fiction films may be assessed against similar codes, and will be considered biased or subjective if they fail to meet them. That selectivity may make bias possible, or even likely, does not preclude the possibility of a film according with established standards of objectivity. The obvious differences between the real world and the filmed presentation prevent film from substituting for lived experience, but they do not prevent documentaries from being objective. This central assumption of this argument that there are standards of objectivity that can be used to judge the truth is exactly the assumption that we have seen Bill Nichols question. Carroll, however, disputes all of Nichols contentions that are cited above. Firstly, he does not accept that objectivity demands that a film call attention to its processes of construction. After all, the fact that a non-fiction film is constructed is understood by any audience and does not need to be spelt out. Self-reflexive analyses of the filmmaking process or the authors own subjectivity might be a feature of many recent documentaries, but for Carrol this is an artistic device, rather than a necessary benchmark for objectivity. Nor does he accept that any standard for objectivity has embedded political assumptions, even accepting Nichols very broad definitions (outlined above) of what constitutes a political assumption. A belief in the self-evident nature of facts, for example, might be a political assumption when the facts being presented are politically charged falsehoods. Yet the acceptance that some claims of self-evident truth are suspect does not mean that there can be no self-evident facts. With regards to rhetorical persuasion, he argues that films can either eschew such devices altogether (he cites nature documentaries as an example),21 or employ rhetorical structures in the service of objective discourse. Similarly, he regards the implicit claim that this is so, isnt it as present in virtually any assertion and hence neither a political assumption nor a barrier to objectivity. Carrolls approach to these arguments about the prospects for truth or objectivity in documentary is often to return to examples where the truth claimed by the documentary seems clear and uncontentious (as with his common use of nature documentaries as discussion points). The linking thread of the arguments he presents is that the theorists he criticises have mistaken the difficulty in presenting objective truth for an impossibility, often by focussing on exactly the texts where the truth is most problematic.22 It is worth returning to The Thin Blue Line and JFK at this point, since these films both explore events that are subject to considerable conjecture. Neither could be accused of assuming the truth about these events is self-evident (quite the opposite), yet both nevertheless ultimately make vital factual claims. As noted already, these claims question state-sanctioned verdicts, and both films led to a public discussion that forced official re-examination of the cases: The Thin Blue Line forced the retrial of Randall Adams, while JFK contributed to the passing of the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act of 1992, which appointed an Assassination Records Review Board (AARB) to re-examine unreleased information about the assassination.23 More than a decade later, with Randall Adams freed from jail, it seems fair to say that Morris case has been widely accepted as true. Oliver Stone, too, has been partially vindicated by subsequent re-examination of the case, with records released by the AARB that support some of his allegations (such as tampering with records of Kennedys autopsy).24 Yet, despite such small victories, and acceptance by many filmgoers of Stones theory of the assassination, JFK remains subject to fierce scholarly criticism of both its methods and conclusions that stands in contrast to the reception of The Thin Blue Line. Linda Williams, in her discussion of the two films, dismisses JFK as paranoid fiction,25 and the widespread condemnation of Stones film by both popular and academic press is well documented.26 Clearly this has much to do with the nature of the case Stone discusses. The Kennedy assassination, for obvious reasons, is a much more familiar event and one that had been the subject of considerably more public discussion than the Randall Adams prosecution. Furthermore, while The Thin Blue Line avoids underlining the political implications of its own conclusions, JFK is explicitly critical of the government and media, calling the assassination a coup detat and coming very close to suggesting former president Lyndon Johnson was involved.27 However, the difference in the reception of the two films cannot be explained simply through reference to the argument each presents. Within the very similar structures outlined at the start of this essay, there are also crucial differences that also explain much of the negative response to Stones film compared to Morris. In his consideration of JFK, Robert Rosenstone notes that there are considerable constraints over the depiction of historical events on the screen.28 In particular, he sees the need to invent detail and compress events to shape a narrative as a limitation that must be negotiated by any historical film. While he is referring to narrative features such as JFK, his argument is equally applicable to the summaries of and suppositions regarding events in The Thin Blue Line. This argument has clear overtones of the discussions of documentaries distortions of truth through selectivity that have already been cited. Like Carroll, Rosenstone argues that when a historical filmmaker such as Stone invents or compresses events, he or she is exercising the same type of discretion that the author of any written history must.29 Such inventions can be considered true (at least to a point) in the sense that they can be verified, documented, or reasonably argued. The problem, notes Rosenstone, is that the verification must occur outside the world of the film. When Stone argues in JFK that President Kennedy was about to withdraw troops from Vietnam, the information is justified by reference to a real memorandum (National Security Action Memo 263), but a fictitious character makes the reference. Assuming no foreknowledge of the case, the audience has no way while watching the film of even knowing that the memorandum really existed, let alone being sure that it supports the conclusion Stone draws. If Stones conclusion is to be examined, the audience must go beyond viewing and read the relevant documents (or scholarly discussion of them) for themselves. If they do so, they will, as Rosenstone states, be undertaking the same kind of critique and review that a work of written history is subjected to. This process of measuring a film against standards of objectivity is exactly that which Carroll highlights as the means of linking non-fiction films to the truth. Stone has actively sought to enter into such debates, mounting extensive defences of the historical accuracy of JFK and his other works.30 That JFK was so controversial was perhaps partly due to the fact that audiences do not necessarily judge films within such evaluative frameworks: unlike the target audience for written history, they may assume that what they see is true and not enter into the debates as to the films veracity. Even assuming an engaged, sceptical audience, however, it is also the case that Stones film does not make the separation of truth from fiction a straightforward task. I have already suggested that the film possesses three layers of exposition: an outer narrative (Stones case), an inner narrative (Garrisons story), and evidence (presented as documentary material and re-enactments). The inner narrative story of Jim Garrison (which is likely to be understood by most audiences as at least partially fictional and not taken as literally true) is often weaved seamlessly in with the evidence (more likely to be seen as Stones presentation of true material). Garrison, for example, meets the mysterious Mr X (Donald Sutherland) in Washington, who outlines a hypothesis about who killed Kennedy and why. This calls forth a series of re-enactments of high level discussions between officials that are weaved into Mr Xs account. The narrative is calling forth evidence, but the difficulty with this sequence is in separating what material is a fictional narrative device, what is speculated, and what is documented truth. For example, are we to accept that Garrison really did meet an anonymous official who told him this information, and take that as evidence that Stones case is true? Or are we to take this as simply part of the inner narrative, a method of presenting evidence? As mentioned, Mr X talks in detail of a real memorandum in order to put Stones case that Kennedy wished to withdraw from Vietnam. An audience might correctly surmise that the existence of such a memo (putting aside its meaning) is a documented fact. However, this quickly leads into discussions of the reaction to this memo within high levels of the government, and the point at which history slides into speculation in this sequence is by no means readily apparent. The re-enactment portions of the sequence are presented in a stylised style using black and white photography, but this does not flag them as conjectural, since Stone switches between film stocks throughout the film without drawing such distinctions. (Elsewhere in the film, for example, the Zapruder film of the assassination, is alternated with simulated footage shot in the same style.) The effect of these aesthetic decisions by Stone is to confuse the boundaries between non-fiction and fiction in a way that makes application of objective standards for assessing truth difficult. The audience can only infer which sections of the film are intended to be read as non-fiction and subject to such examination. Written in October 2001 for the Melbourne University subject Ethnographic and Documentary Cinema. Notes 1. This is the concluding sentence of Eric Barnouw, Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film, (Oxford University Press, New York Oxford, 1993, 2nd Revised Edition), p. 349. 2. The list of similarities between the two films that follows draws partly on Linda Williams, Mirrors without Memories: Truth, History and The Thin Blue Line in Barry Keith Grant Jeanette Sloniowski (eds), Documenting the Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video (Wayne State UP, Detroit, 1998), p 381. 3. The films Garrison, for example, has access to information the real Garrison did not, in order to allow Stone to communicate it to audiences. For example, In the movie we attributed to Garrison the information about Shaws background but in real life Jim did not have access to that information at that time. (Oliver Stone audio commentary, JFK DVD, Region 4 Special Edition Directors Cut release, Warner Brothers, 1 hour 28 mins approx.) 4. This phrase is Stones own: JFK audio commentary, op. cit., 2 hours 10 mins approx. While these scenes are also used to communicate information about the larger case, this is an example of narrative efficiency, and does not contradict my point that they do contain aspects (such as the melodromatic touch of Garrisons children asking Dont you love us any more?) which function simply as domestic drama, with no relation to the case against Clay Shaw. 5. Nichols has revisited and slightly reformulated these modes over time, but they can be summarised as expository (ie voice-of-God documentaries that use direct address to tell the audience a truth), observational (cinema verite style films that aim to observe events without participating), interactive (interview based films that allows for direct address by participants, while allowing for filmmakers interaction through questioning), reflexive (films that draw attention to the documentarys own methods), and performative (stressing an individual, subjective position, while downplaying objective or referential aspects). See Bill Nichols: The Voice of Documentary, Film Quarterly 36, no 3 (Spring 1983); Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary (1991, Indiana University Press, Bloomington and Indianapolis), Chapter 2; and (for the perfomative mode) Performing Documentary, Blurred Boundaries: Questions of Meaning in Contemporary Culture (c. 1994, Indiana UP, Bloomington), pp 92-106. 6. This point and the subsequent discussion of classical film theory draw on the discussions in the anthologies Gerald Mast et al. (eds.), Film Theory and Criticism: Introductory Readings, (Oxford University Press, New York and Oxford, 1992), pp. 3-7, and Antony Easthorpe, Contemporary Film Theory (Longman, London New York, 1993), pp. 2-5. 7. Rudolf Arnheim, Film as Art (Faber Faber, London, 1958), esp. pp. 17-37. 8. Ibid., p. 37-114. 9. Noà «l Carroll, From Real to Reel: Entangled in Nonfiction film, in Noà «l Carroll, Theorizing the Moving Image (Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996), p. 224-252. (Originally published in Philosophic Exchange in 1983, and will be cited in future as Carroll (1996/1983) to distinguish it from his piece in Post-Theory cited below). Reference to direct cinema is p. 225. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid., p. 226. Carroll is quoting from the first edition of Barnouws Documentary, citing p. 287-288 of that edition (Oxford University Press, New York, 1974). The nearest equivalent to this quote I can find in the third edition (op. cit.) is at p. 344. 12. Noà «l Carroll, Nonfiction films and Postmodernist Skepticism in Noà «l Carrol David Bordwell (eds.), Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies, (University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, 1996), pp. 283-306. 13. Ibid., p. 288. Emphasis is Carrolls. 14. Carroll is frequently belligerent about the texts he discusses but is particularly so about Renovs Theorizing Documentary, describing it as a state of the art compendium of received thinking about the documentary film, and dismissing Renovs argument as a red herring. Ibid., p. 285 291. 15. Both quotes Nichols, 1991, op. cit., p. 109. Emphasis is Nichols. 16. This is the title of the second part of Nichols book. How helpful this argumentative nature is as a distinction between fiction and documentary (and how unlike any other form of fiction documentary can be said to be) is debatable given that fiction can be every bit as argumentative as documentary (as JFK demonstrates). 17. Ibid., p. 195. 18. Carroll (1996/1983), op. cit., p. 226. 19. Carroll: I mention this because I do not think that commentators who conclude that the nonfiction film is subjective intend their remarks as a mere gloss on the notion that everything is subjective. But that, I fear, is the untoward implication of their attack. Ibid., p. 226. 20. Ibid., p. 230. See also Carroll, 1996, op. cit. pp. 283-285. 21. Carroll, 1996, p. 294. 22. See, for example, Ibid., p. 293, regarding film scholars focus on art-documentary. 23. Michael L. Kurtz, Oliver Stone, JFK, and History, in Robert Brent Toplin (ed), Oliver